## Learning Objectives

• load external data (CSV files) in memory using the survey table (surveys.csv) as an example
• explore the structure and the content of a data frame in R
• understand what factors are and how to manipulate them
• understand the concept of a data.frame
• use sequences
• know how to access any element of a data.frame

## Basics of R

R is a versatile, open source programming/scripting language that’s useful both for statistics but also data science. Inspired by the programming language S.

• Free/Libre/Open Source Software under the GPL.
• Superior (if not just comparable) to commercial alternatives. R has over 7,000 user contributed packages at this time. It’s widely used both in academia and industry.
• Available on all platforms.
• Not just for statistics, but also general purpose programming.
• For people who have experience in programmming: R is both an object-oriented and a so-called functional language.
• Large and growing community of peers.

## Presentation of RStudio

Let’s start by learning about RStudio, the Integrated Development Environment (IDE) that we will use to write code, navigate the files found on our computer, inspect the variables we are going to create, and visualize the plots we will generate. RStudio can also be used for other things (e.g., version control, developing packages) that we will not cover during the workshop.

RStudio is divided into 4 “Panes”: the editor for your scripts and documents (top-left), the R console (bottom-left), your environment/history (top-right), and your files/plots/packages/help/viewer (bottom-right). The placement of these panes and their content can be customized.

## R as a calculator

The lower-left pane (the R “console”) is where you can interact with R directly. The > sign is the R “prompt”. It indicates that R is waiting for you to type something.

You can type Ctrl + Shift + 2 to focus just on the R console pane. Use Ctrl + Shift + 0 to get back to the four panes. I use this when teaching but not otherwise.

Let’s start by subtracting a couple of numbers.

2016 - 1969
## [1] 47

R does the calculation and prints the result, and then you get the > prompt again. We won’t discuss what that number might mean. (The [1] in the results is a bit weird; you can ignore that for now.)

You can use R as a calculator in this way.

4*6
4/6
4^6
log(4)
log10(4)

Here log is a function that gives you the natural logarithm. Much of your calculations in R will be through functions. The value in the parentheses is called the function “argument”. log10 is another function, that calculates the log base 10. There can be more than one argument, and some of them may have default values. log has a second argument base whose default (the value if left unspecified) is e.

### Getting help

If you type log and pause for a moment, you’ll get a pop-up with information about the function.

Alternatively, you could type

?log

and the documentation for the function will show up in the lower-right pane. These are often a bit too detailed, and so they take some practice to read. I generally focus on Usage and Arguments, and then on Examples at the bottom. We’ll talk more about getting help later.

## Need for Scripts

We can go along, typing directly into the R console. But there won’t be an easy way to keep track of what we’ve done.

It’s best to write R “scripts” (files with R code), and work from them. And when we start creating scripts, we need to worry about how we organize the scripts and data for a project.

And so let’s pause for a moment and talk about file organization.

## Creating an R Project

It is good practice to keep a set of related data, analyses, and text self-contained in a single folder, called the working directory. All of the scripts within this folder can then use relative paths to files that indicate where inside the project a file is located (as opposed to absolute paths, which point to where a file is on a specific computer). Working this way makes it a lot easier to move your project around on your computer and share it with others without worrying about whether or not the underlying scripts will still work.

RStudio provides a helpful set of tools to do this through its “Projects” interface, which can create a working directory for you (or use an existing one) and also remembers its location (allowing you to quickly navigate to it) and optionally preserves custom settings and open files to make it easier to resume work after a break. Below, we will go through the steps for creating an RProject for this tutorial.

We assume you’ve already got a DataCarpentry folder that you’re going to use.

• Start RStudio (presentation of RStudio -below- should happen here)
• Under the File menu, click on New project, choose Existing directory, then click the “Browse” button and find your DataCarpentry folder.
• Click on “Create project”
• Create a new R script (File > New File > R script) and save it in your Code subfolder (e.g. ~/DataCarpentry/Code)

## Interacting with R

While you can type R commands directly at the > prompt in the R console, I recommend typing your commands into a script, which you’ll save for later reference, and then executing the commands from there.

Start by typing the following into the R script in the top-left pane.

# R intro

2016 - 1969

Save the file clicking the computer disk icon, or by typing Ctrl + S.

Now place the cursor on the line with 2016 - 1969 and type Ctrl + Enter. The command will be copied to the R console and executed, and then the cursor will move to the next line.

You can also highlight a bunch of code and execute the block all at once with Ctrl + Enter.

### Commenting

Use # signs to comment. Anything to the right of a # is ignored by R, meaning it won’t be executed. Comments are a great way to describe what your code does within the code itself, so comment liberally in your R scripts.

## Assignment operator

We can assign names to numbers and other objects with the assignment operator, <-. For example:

age <- 2016-1969

Type that into your script, and use Ctrl + Enter to paste it to the console.

You can also use = as assignment, but that symbol can have other meanings, and so I recommend sticking with the <- combination.

In RStudio, typing Alt + - will write <- in a single keystroke.

If you’ve assigned a number to an object, you can then use it in further calculations:

sqrt(age)
## [1] 6.855655

You can assigned that to something, and then use it.

sqrt_age <- sqrt(age)
round(sqrt_age)
round(sqrt_age, 2)

## Object names

Objects can be given any name such as x, current_temperature, or subject_id. You want your object names to be explicit and not too long.

They cannot start with a number (2x is not valid, but x2 is).

R is case sensitive (e.g., weight_kg is different from Weight_kg). There are some names that cannot be used because they are the names of fundamental functions in R (e.g., if, else, for, see here for a complete list).

In general, even if it’s allowed, it’s best to not use other function names (e.g., c, T, mean, data, df, weights). In doubt check the help to see if the name is already in use.

It’s also best to avoid dots (.) within a variable name as in my.dataset. There are many functions in R with dots in their names for historical reasons, but because dots have a special meaning in R (for methods) and other programming languages, it’s best to avoid them. It is also recommended to use nouns for variable names, and verbs for function names. It’s important to be consistent in the styling of your code (where you put spaces, how you name variable, etc.). In R, two popular style guides are Hadley Wickham’s and Google’s.

### Using named arguments

For the round() function the 1st argument is the number to round and the 2nd is how many digits to round to. There are some functions that take many arguments and you can imagine that it might get confusing trying to keep them in order. In that case, it is often better to expiclity name the arguments. You can find the argument names using the help methods we discussed earlier.

Here is an example using named arguments with round. When the arguments are named the order doesn’t matter. You might enter the first few important arguments positionally, and later ones by naming them.

round(x = sqrt_age, digits = 2)
round(digits = 2, x = sqrt_age)
round(sqrt_age, digits = 2)

In the coming materials we may enter named arguments, as needed.

### Challenge

What is the value of y after doing the following?

x <- 50
y <- x * 2
x <- 80

Objects don’t get linked to each other, so if you change one, it won’t affect the values of any others.

## Plunge straight into the Survey Data

We will continue to look at the species and weight of animals caught in plots in a study area in Arizona over time. The dataset is stored as a CSV file: each row holds information for a single animal, and the columns represent:

Column Description
record_id Unique id for the observation
month month of observation
day day of observation
year year of observation
plot_id ID of a particular plot
species_id 2-letter code
sex sex of animal (“M”, “F”)
hindfoot_length length of the hindfoot in mm
weight weight of the animal in grams
genus genus of animal
species species of animal
taxa e.g. Rodent, Reptile, Bird, Rabbit
plot_type type of plot

The data are available at http://kbroman.org/datacarp/portal_data_joined.csv.

We can read that data straight from the web, as follows

surveys <- read.csv("http://kbroman.org/datacarp/portal_data_joined.csv")

The objects you create get added to your “workspace”. You can list the current objects with ls().

ls()

RStudio also shows the objects in the Environment panel.

## Data frames

The data are stored in what’s called a “data frame”. It’s a big rectangle, with rows being observations and columns being variables. The different columns can be different types (numeric, character, etc.), but they’re all the same length.

Use head() to view the first few rows.

head(surveys)

Use tail() to view the last few rows.

tail(surveys)

Use str() to look at the structure of the data.

str(surveys)

This shows that there are 34786 rows and 13 columns, and then for each column, it gives information about the data type and shows the first few values.

For these data, the columns have two types: integer, or “Factor”. Factor columns are text with a discrete set of possible values. We’ll come back to this in a bit.

### Challenge

Study the output of str(surveys). How are the missing values being treated?

### Another summary

Another useful function in summary().

summary(surveys)

For the numeric data, you get six statistics (min, 25th percentile, median, mean, 75th percentile, and max). For the factors, you get a table with counts for the most-frequent “levels”, and then for the rest.

## Inspecting data frames

We already saw how the functions head() and str() can be useful to check the content and the structure of a data.frame. Here is a non-exhaustive list of functions to get a sense of the content/structure of the data.

• Size:
• dim() - returns a vector with the number of rows in the first element, and the number of columns as the second element (the __dim__ensions of the object)
• nrow() - returns the number of rows
• ncol() - returns the number of columns
• Content:
• head() - shows the first 6 rows
• tail() - shows the last 6 rows
• Names:
• names() - returns the column names (synonym of colnames() for data.frame objects)
• rownames() - returns the row names
• Summary:
• str() - structure of the object and information about the class, length and content of each column
• summary() - summary statistics for each column

Note: most of these functions are “generic”, they can be used on other types of objects besides data.frame.

It probably is best to first download the file, so that we have a local copy, and then read it in.

We could first use download_file() to download the data into the CleanData/ subdirectory:

download.file("http://kbroman.org/datacarp/portal_data_joined.csv",
"CleanData/portal_data_joined.csv")

We could then use read.csv() to load the data into R, from the downloaded file:

surveys <- read.csv('CleanData/portal_data_joined.csv')

## Indexing, Sequences, and Subsetting

We can pull out parts of a data frame using square brackets. We need to provide two values: row and column, with a comma between them.

For example, to get the element in the 1st row, 1st column:

surveys[1,1]

To get the element in the 2nd row, 7th column:

surveys[2,7]

To get the entire 2nd row, leave the column part blank:

surveys[2,]

And to get the entire 7th column, leave the row part blank:

sex <- surveys[,7]

You can also refer to columns by name, in multiple ways.

sex <- surveys[, "sex"]
sex <- surveys\$sex
sex <- surveys[["sex"]]

When we pull out a single column, the result is a “vector”. We can again use square brackets to pull out individual values, but providing a single number.

sex[1]
sex[10000]

### Slices

You can pull out larger slices from the vector by providing vectors of indices. You can use the c() function to create a vector.

c(1,3,5)
sex[c(1,3,5)]

To pull out larger slices, it’s helpful to have ways of creating sequences of numbers.

First, the operator : gives you a sequence of consecutive values.

1:10
10:1
5:8

seq is more flexible.

seq(1, 10, by=2)
seq(5, 10, length.out=3)
seq(50, by=5, length.out=10)
seq(1, 8, by=3) # sequence stops to stay below upper limit
seq(10, 2, by=-2)  # can also go backwards

To get slices of our data frame, we can include a vector for the row or column indexes (or both)

surveys[1:3, 7]   # first three elements in the 7th column
surveys[1, 1:3]   # first three columns in the first row
surveys[2:4, 6:7] # rows 2-4, columns 6-7

### Challenge

The function nrow() on a data.frame returns the number of rows.

Use nrow(), in conjuction with seq() to create a new data.frame called surveys_by_10 that includes every 10th row of the survey data frame starting at row 10 (10, 20, 30, …)

## Missing data

As R was designed to analyze datasets, it includes the concept of missing data (which is uncommon in other programming languages). Missing data are represented in vectors as NA.

heights <- c(2, 4, 4, NA, 6)

When doing operations on numbers, most functions will return NA if the data you are working with include missing values. It is a safer behavior as otherwise you may overlook that you are dealing with missing data. You can add the argument na.rm=TRUE to calculate the result while ignoring the missing values.

mean(heights)
max(heights)
mean(heights, na.rm = TRUE)
max(heights, na.rm = TRUE)

If your data include missing values, you may want to become familiar with the functions is.na() and na.omit().

## Extract those elements which are not missing values.
heights[!is.na(heights)]
## shortcut to that
na.omit(heights)

### Treating blanks as missing

Another aside: it’s probably best to treat those blanks as missing (NA). To do that, use the argument na.strings when reading the data. na.strings can be a vector of multiple character strings. We need that a missing value code can never exist as a valid value, because they all will be converted to the missing data code NA. And note that the default for na.strings is "NA", which will cause problems if "NA" is a valid value for your data (e.g., as an abbreviation "North America").

surveys_noblanks <- read.csv("CleanData/portal_data_joined.csv", na.strings="")

## Factors

Factors are used to represent categorical data. Factors can be ordered or unordered, and understanding them is necessary for statistical analysis and for plotting.

Factors are stored as integers, and have labels associated with these unique integers. While factors look (and often behave) like character vectors, they are actually integers under the hood, and you need to be careful when treating them like strings.

Once created, factors can only contain a pre-defined set of values, known as levels. By default, R always sorts levels in alphabetical order. For instance, if you use factor() to create a factor with 2 levels:

sex <- factor(c("male", "female", "female", "male"))

R will assign 1 to the level "female" and 2 to the level "male" (because f comes before m, even though the first element in this vector is "male"). You can check this by using the function levels(), and check the number of levels using nlevels():

levels(sex)
nlevels(sex)

Sometimes, the order of the factors does not matter, other times you might want to specify a particular order.

food <- factor(c("low", "high", "medium", "high", "low", "medium", "high"))
levels(food)
food <- factor(food, levels=c("low", "medium", "high"))
levels(food)

### Converting factors

If you need to convert a factor to a character vector, you use as.character(x).

Converting factors where the levels appear as numbers (such as concentration levels) to a numeric vector is a little trickier. One method is to convert factors to characters and then numbers. function. Compare:

f <- factor(c(1, 5, 10, 2))
as.numeric(f)               ## wrong! and there is no warning...
as.numeric(as.character(f)) ## works...

### Challenge

The function table() tabulates observations.

expt <- c("treat1", "treat2", "treat1", "treat3", "treat1",
"control", "treat1", "treat2", "treat3")
expt <- factor(expt)
table(expt)
• In which order are the treatments listed?
• How can you recreate this table with “control” listed last instead of first?

### stringsAsFactors

The default when reading in data with read.csv(), columns with text get turned into factors.

You can avoid this with the argument stringsAsFactors=FALSE.

surveys_chr <- read.csv("CleanData/portal_data_joined.csv", stringsAsFactors=FALSE)

Then when you look at the result of str(), you’ll see that the previously factor columns are now chr.

str(surveys_chr)